MainComputing today is digital, but analog has a future. Exponential advances in digital hardware have both driven and benefited from the rise of artificial intelligence (AI), but its escalating energy and latency demands push digital specialization to its limits8. Analog approaches—leveraging optics1,2,3,4,9, analog electronic crossbars5,6 and quantum annealers7—promise orders-of-magnitude gains in efficiency and speed. Existing hardware demonstrations focus either on AI inference1,2,3,10,11,12...